Subsurface imaging with 3D ground-penetrating radar (GPR) in a permafrost landscape, Svalbard

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is an established tool for the characterization the shallow subsurface. In electrically highly resistive materials, GPR is considered the geophysical technique providing the highest spatial resolution. As frozen soils typically show high electric resistivity, GPR is often applied to permafrost characterization. 2D GPR profiling has been deployed for permafrost studies such as saltwater intrusions, active layer depth, and imaging of ice wedges and polygons. However, elements of the permafrost, including the above, can include complex three dimensional structures, in which case the interpretation of 2D GPR surveys is misleading. In such settings, 3D GPR data acquisition and processing, can provide more-detailed and accurate information on the shape, structure and material properties of subsurface features.