Mass loss of glaciers and ice caps across Greenland since the Little Ice Age

Glaciers and ice caps (GICs) are important contributors of meltwater runoff and to global sea level rise. However, knowledge of GIC mass changes is largely restricted to the last few decades. Here we show the extent of 5327 Greenland GICs during Little Ice Age (LIA) termination (1900) and reveal that they have fragmented into 5467 glaciers in 2001, losing at least 587 km³ from their ablation areas, equating to 499 Gt at a rate of 4.34 Gt yr⁻¹. We estimate that the long-term mean mass balance in glacier ablation areas has been at least −0.18 to −0.22 m w.e. yr⁻¹ and note the rate between 2000 and 2019 has been three times that. Glaciers with ice-marginal lakes formed since the LIA termination have had the fastest changing mass balance. Considerable spatial variability in glacier changes suggest compounding regional and local factors present challenges for understanding glacier evolution.